EPIDEMIOLOGY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN EMERGENCIES
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32782/2786-7684/2025-4-19Keywords:
infections, catastrophes, natural disasters, conflicts, risk factors, prevention, anti-epidemic measuresAbstract
Introduction. The number and scale of emergencies in the world are constantly increasing. Natural disasters and armed conflicts contribute to outbreaks of infectious diseases among the population. To develop and implement effective preventive and anti-epidemic measures, it is important to take into account the epidemiological features of infectious diseases in emergency situations. Objective of the study. To analyze the epidemiological features of infectious diseases that arise in emergency situations, to determine the main preventive and anti-epidemic measures for their control. Materials and methods. An analysis of research results and methodological developments published in foreign scientific sources over the past ten years on the topic of epidemiology of infectious diseases during emergencies was conducted. Research results and discussion. Today, the world is experiencing a trend toward an increase in the number and scale of emergencies, including natural disasters and military conflicts. The interaction of various factors that accompany emergency events causes outbreaks of infectious diseases. The main risk factors contributing to the increase in infectious disease incidence in emergencies are population displacement, poor sanitation, limited access to medical care, low vaccination rates, problems with water supply and nutrition, and low socio- economic status of the population. The most common infectious diseases that arise as a result of emergencies are intestinal, respiratory, skin, transmissible, and vaccine-preventable infections. Research results show that effective implementation of emergency management measures reduces the consequences associated with infectious diseases. In general, the most important thing in any emergency situation is the proper organization of the response, which must be timely, effective, and sustainable. Conclusions. Emergency situations contribute to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. Effective prevention requires a comprehensive approach that involves the use of sanitary and hygienic measures, vaccination, and epidemiological surveillance. Increasing the preparedness of the healthcare system for an immediate and effective response is an important task for states.
References
Lay See K, Ahmad Hafizam H, Ghani Aziz Sarah Aziz A, Mohamad Azaini I, Mohd Shah M. MH17: the Malaysian experience.
Fernández García A, Cernuda Martínez JA, Arcos González P. The epidemiological profile and morbidity-mortality patterns of technological disasters in Europe from 2000 to 2021. Public Health [Internet]. 2025;240:125–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.puhe.2025.01.008
Charnley GEC, Kelman I, Gaythorpe KAM, Murray KA. Traits and risk factors of post-disaster infectious disease outbreaks: a systematic review. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2021;11:5616. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85146-0
Topluoglu S, Taylan-Ozkan A, Alp E. Impact of wars and natural disasters on emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. Front Public Health [Internet]. Frontiers Media SA; 2023;11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1215929
Rathore MH. Infections after Natural Disasters. Pediatr Rev [Internet]. 2020;41:501–10. https://doi.org/10.1542/ pir.2018-0208
Izumikawa K. Infection control after and during natural disaster. Acute Medicine & Surgery [Internet]. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2019;6:5–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ams2.367
Walika M, Moitinho De Almeida M, Castro Delgado R, Arcos González P. Outbreaks Following Natural Disasters: A Review of the Literature. Disaster Med Public Health Prep [Internet]. Cambridge University Press; 2023;17:e444. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2023.96
Guha-Sapir D, Below R, Hoyois P. EM-DAT: the emergency events database-Université catholique de Louvain (UCL)- CRED. Retrieved from emdat be [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2025 Oct 1]; emdat.be. Accessed 1 Oct 2025
Suk JE, Vaughan EC, Cook RG, Semenza JC. Natural disasters and infectious disease in Europe: a literature review to identify cascading risk pathways. Eur J Public Health [Internet]. 2020;30:928–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckz111
Romanello M, Di Napoli C, Drummond P, Green C, Kennard H, Lampard P, et al. The 2022 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: health at the mercy of fossil fuels. The Lancet [Internet]. Elsevier; 2022;400:1619–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01540-9
Shokri A, Sabzevari S, Hashemi SA. Impacts of flood on health of Iranian population: Infectious diseases with an emphasis on parasitic infections. Parasite Epidemiol Control [Internet]. 2020;9:e00144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parepi.2020. e00144
Pérez-Martín JJ, Romera Guirado FJ, Molina-Salas Y, Bernal-González PJ, Navarro-Alonso JA. Vaccination campaign at a temporary camp for victims of the earthquake in Lorca (Spain). Hum Vaccin Immunother [Internet]. Taylor & Francis; 2017;13:1714–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1296611
Charnley GEC, Kelman I, Gaythorpe K, Murray K. Understanding the risks for post-disaster infectious disease outbreaks: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2020;10:e039608. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039608
Maity B, Banerjee S, Senapati A, Chattopadhyay J. Quantifying optimal resource allocation strategies for controlling epidemics. J R Soc Interface [Internet]. Royal Society; 2023;20:20230036. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2023.0036
Lau CL, Watson CH, Lowry JH, David MC, Craig SB, Wynwood SJ, et al. Human Leptospirosis Infection in Fiji: An Eco-epidemiological Approach to Identifying Risk Factors and Environmental Drivers for Transmission. Picardeau M, editor. PLoS Negl Trop Dis [Internet]. Public Library of Science; 2016;10:e0004405. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004405
Liu Z, Zhang F, Zhang Y, Li J, Liu X, Ding G, et al. Association between floods and infectious diarrhea and their effect modifiers in Hunan province, China: A two-stage model. Science of The Total Environment [Internet]. 2018;626:630–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.130
Sorensen CJ, Borbor‐Cordova MJ, Calvello‐Hynes E, Diaz A, Lemery J, Stewart‐Ibarra AM. Climate Variability, Vulnerability, and Natural Disasters: A Case Study of Zika Virus in Manabi, Ecuador Following the 2016 Earthquake. Geohealth [Internet]. John Wiley and Sons Inc; 2017;1:298–304. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GH000104
Garry S, Checchi F. Armed conflict and public health: into the 21st century. J Public Health (Bangkok) [Internet]. 2020;42:e287–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdz095
Goniewicz K, Burkle FM, Horne S, Borowska‐stefańska M, Wiśniewski S, Khorram‐manesh A. The influence of war and conflict on infectious disease: A rapid review of historical lessons we have yet to learn. Sustainability (Switzerland). MDPI; 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910783
Marou V, Vardavas CI, Aslanoglou K, Nikitara K, Plyta Z, Leonardi-Bee J, et al. The impact of conflict on infectious disease: a systematic literature review. Confl Health [Internet]. 2024;18:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-023-00568-z
Turhan V, Hatipoglu M. Wartime infections and tragedies at the beginning of the 20th century in the Eastern part of Turkey [Internet]. Article in Infezioni in Medicina. 2017. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315713116
Murray JF. Tuberculosis and World War I. Am J Respir Crit Care Med [Internet]. American Thoracic Society; 2015;192:411–4. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201501-0135OE
Helou M, Mouawad Y, El Ters F, Husni R. Measles Outbreak in Lebanon: July 2023. Disaster Med Public Health Prep [Internet]. 2024;18:e49. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2024.42
Boussaa S, Dardona Z, Amane M. Challenges and risk factors for infectious diseases in Gaza due to the current conflict. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal [Internet]. 2025;31:127–33. https://doi.org/10.26719/2025.31.2.127
Ecdc. Operational considerations for the prevention and control of infectious diseases – Russia’s aggression towards Ukraine. 2022.
Hammer CC, Brainard J, Hunter PR. Risk factors and risk factor cascades for communicable disease outbreaks in complex humanitarian emergencies: a qualitative systematic review. BMJ Glob Health [Internet]. BMJ Publishing Group; 2018;3:e000647. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000647
Smith DFQ, Casadevall A. Disaster Microbiology—a New Field of Study. Yount J, editor. mBio [Internet]. American Society for Microbiology; 2022;13:e01680-22. https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.01680-22
Andrade L, O’Dwyer J, O’Neill E, Hynds P. Surface water flooding, groundwater contamination, and enteric disease in developed countries: A scoping review of connections and consequences. Environmental Pollution [Internet]. 2018;236:540–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.01.104
Acosta-España JD, Romero-Alvarez D, Luna C, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Infectious disease outbreaks in the wake of natural flood disasters: global patterns and local implications. Infezioni in Medicina [Internet]. EDIMES Edizioni Medico Scientifiche; 2024;4:451–62. https://doi.org/10.53854/liim-3204-4
De Man H, Mughini Gras L, Schimmer B, Friesema Ihm, De Roda Husman Am, Van Pelt W. Gastrointestinal, influenza-like illness and dermatological complaints following exposure to floodwater: a cross-sectional survey in The Netherlands. Epidemiol Infect [Internet]. 2015/11/11. Cambridge University Press; 2016;144:1445–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268815002654
Gertler M, Dürr M, Renner P, Poppert S, Askar M, Breidenbach J, et al. Outbreak of cryptosporidium hominis following river flooding in the city of Halle (Saale), Germany, August 2013. BMC Infect Dis [Internet]. BioMed Central Ltd.; 2015;15:88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-0807-1
Mulder AC, Pijnacker R, de Man H, van de Kassteele J, van Pelt W, Mughini-Gras L, et al. “Sickenin’ in the rain” – increased risk of gastrointestinal and respiratory infections after urban pluvial flooding in a population-based cross-sectional study in the Netherlands. BMC Infect Dis [Internet]. 2019;19:377. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-019-3984-5
Nigro G, Bottone G, Maiorani D, Trombatore F, Falasca S, Bruno G. Pediatric Epidemic of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium in the Area of L’Aquila, Italy, Four Years after a Catastrophic Earthquake. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. MDPI; 2016;13:475. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13050475
Ventura RJ, Muhi E, de los Reyes VC, Sucaldito MN, Tayag E. A community-based gastroenteritis outbreak after Typhoon Haiyan, Leyte, Philippines, 2013. Western Pacific Surveillance and Response Journal [Internet]. World Health Organization, Western Pacific Regional Office; 2015;6:1–6. https://doi.org/10.5365/wpsar.2014.5.1.010
(ECHO) ECD-G for ECP and HAO. Overview of natural and man-made disaster risks the European Union may face – 2020 edition. Publications Office of the European Union; 2021. https://doi.org/doi/10.2795/1521
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction U. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.
Huang L, Shi P, Zhu H, Chen T. Early detection of emergency events from social media: a new text clustering approach. Natural Hazards [Internet]. Springer Science and Business Media B.V.; 2022;111:851–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-05081-1
Yuan P, Liu H, Dong X. Scenario-based assessment of emergency management of urban infectious disease outbreaks. Front Public Health [Internet]. Frontiers Media SA; 2024;12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1368154
Santinha G, Forte T, Gomes A. Willingness to Work during Public Health Emergencies: A Systematic Literature Review. Healthcare [Internet]. MDPI; 2022;10:1500. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10081500
Nafar H, Tahmazi Aghdam E, Derakhshani N, Sani’ee N, Sharifian S, Goharinezhad S. A systematic mapping review of factors associated with willingness to work under emergency condition. Hum Resour Health [Internet]. BioMed Central Ltd; 2021;19:76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-021-00622-y
Hugelius K, Becker J, Adolfsson A. Five Challenges When Managing Mass Casualty or Disaster Situations: A Review Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. MDPI AG; 2020;17:3068. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093068
